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019_branching_and_looping_structures/019_csharp.md
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@ -407,3 +407,10 @@ data that filled gaps in the ourAnimals array.
Your ability to implement features of the Contoso Pets application based on a Your ability to implement features of the Contoso Pets application based on a
design specification demonstrates your understanding of the iteration and design specification demonstrates your understanding of the iteration and
selection statements. selection statements.
---
Project Files
- [Final](./ChallengeProject/Final/Program.cs)
- [Own](./ChallengeProject/Own/Program.cs)

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# Choose the correct data type in your C# code
## Introduction
The C# programming language relies on data types extensively. Data types
restrict the kinds of values that can be stored in a given variable, which can
be helpful when trying to create error free code. As a developer, you
confidently perform operations on your variables because you know in advance
that it only stores valid values.
Suppose your job is to build a new application that must retrieve, manipulate,
and store many different kinds of data, including individual numeric values and
sequences of numeric and text values. Choosing the right data types is critical
to the success of your software development efforts. But what are your options,
and what criteria should you use when faced with several data types that seem
similar?
In this module, you learn how your application stores and processes data. You
learn that there are two kinds of data types that correspond with the two ways
that data is processed. You write code that identifies the maximum and minimum
values that can be stored in a particular numeric data type. And, you learn the
criteria to use when choosing between several numeric data types for your
application.
By the end of this module, you'll be confident when working with different data
types in C# and able to choose the right data type for your particular application.
### Learning objectives
- Learn the fundamental differences between value types and reference types.
- Describe the properties of many new numeric data types, including new
integral types and floating point types.
- Write code that returns the maximum and minimum values that numeric data
types can store.
- Use the new keyword to create new instances of a reference type.
- Determine which data type you should choose for a given application.
## Discover value types and reference types
With many data types available in C#, choosing the right one to use means that
you need to understand when you might choose one data type over another.
Before discussing why you might choose one data type over another, you need to
understand more about data types. You also need to know how data and data types
work in C# and .NET.
### What is data?
Answering the question "what is data" depends on who you ask, and in what
context you're asking it.
In software development, data is essentially a value that is stored in the
computer's memory as a series of bits. A bit is a simple binary switch
represented as a `0` or `1`, or rather, "off" and "on." A single bit doesn't
seem useful, however when you combine 8 bits together in a sequence, they form
a byte. When used in a byte, each bit takes on a meaning in the sequence. In
fact, you can represent 256 different combinations with just 8 bits if you use
a binary (base-2) numeral system.
For example, in a binary numeral system, you can represent the number `195` as
`11000011`. The following table helps you visualize how this works. The first
row has eight columns that correspond to a position in a byte. Each position
represents a different numeric value. The second row can store the value of an
individual bit, either 0 or 1.
<div align="center">
| | | | | | | | |
| :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: |
| 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |
| 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
</div>
If you add up the number from each column in the first row that corresponds to
a `1` in the second row, you get the decimal equivalent to the binary numeral
system representation. In this case, it would be `128 + 64 + 2 + 1 = 195`.
To work with larger values beyond `255`, your computer stores more bytes
(commonly 32-bit or 64-bit). If you're working with millions of large numbers
in a scientific setting, you may need to consider more carefully which data
types you're using. Your code could require more memory to run.
#### What about textual data?
If a computer only understands `0s` and `1s`, then how does it allow you to work
with text? Using a system like ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange), you can use a single byte to represent upper and lowercase
letters, numbers, tab, backspace, newline and many mathematical symbols.
For example, if you wanted to store a lower-case letter `a` as a value in my
application, the computer would only understand the binary form of that value.
To better understand how a lower-case letter `a` is handled by the computer, I
need to locate an ASCII table that provides ASCII values and their decimal
equivalents. You can search for the terms "ASCII lookup decimal" to locate such
a resource online.
In this case, the lower-case letter `a` is equivalent to the decimal value `97`.
Then, you would use the same binary numeral system in reverse to find how an
ASCII letter `a` is stored by the computer.

<div align="center">
| | | | | | | | |
| :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: | :-: |
| 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 |
| 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
</div>
Since `64 + 32 + 1 = 97`, the 8-bit binary ASCII code for `a` is `01100001`.
It's likely that you'll never need to perform these types of conversions on
your own, but understanding the computer's perspective of data is a
foundational concept, especially as you're considering data types.
#### What is a data type?
A data type is a way a programming language defines how much memory to save for
a value. There are many data types in the C# language to be used for many
different applications and sizes of data.
For most of the applications you build in your career, you'll settle on a small
subset of all the available data types. However, it's still vital to know
others exist and why.
#### Value vs. reference types
This module focuses on the two kinds of types in C#: reference types and value
types.
Variables of reference types store references to their data (objects), that is
they point to data values stored somewhere else. In comparison, variables of
value types directly contain their data. As you learn more about C#, new
details emerge related to the fundamental difference between value and
reference types.
#### Simple value types
Simple value types are a set of predefined types provided by C# as keywords.
These keywords are aliases (a nickname) for predefined types defined in the
.NET Class Library. For example, the C# keyword `int` is an alias of a value
type defined in the .NET Class Library as `System.Int32`.
Simple value types include many of the data types that you may have used
already like `char` and `bool`. There are also many integral and floating-point
value types to represent a wide range of whole and fractional numbers.
### Recap
Values are stored as bits, which are simple on / off switches. Combining enough
of these switches allows you to store just about any possible value.
There are two basic categories of data types: value and reference types. The
difference is in how and where the values are stored by the computer as your
program executes.
Simple value types use a keyword alias to represent formal names of types in
the .NET Library.
---
## Exercise
### Discover integral types
In this exercise, you work with integral types. An integral type is a simple
value type that represents whole numbers with no fraction (such as `-1`, `0`,
`1`, `2`, `3`). The most popular in this category is the `int` data type.
There are two subcategories of integral types: **signed** and **unsigned**
integral types.
A signed type uses its bytes to represent an equal number of positive and
negative numbers. The following exercise gives you exposure to the signed
integral types in C#.
#### Prepare your coding environment
You're using this C# console project to create, build, and run code samples
during this module.
#### Use the MinValue and MaxValue properties for each signed integral type
Program.cs should be empty. If it isn't, select and delete all code lines.
To see the value ranges for the various data types, type the following code
into the code editor.
```cs
Console.WriteLine("Signed integral types:");
Console.WriteLine($"sbyte : {sbyte.MinValue} to {sbyte.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"short : {short.MinValue} to {short.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"int : {int.MinValue} to {int.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"long : {long.MinValue} to {long.MaxValue}");
```
The Program.cs file must be saved before building or running the code.
At the Terminal command prompt, to run your code, type `dotnet run` and then
press Enter.
You should see the following output:
```txt
Signed integral types:
sbyte : -128 to 127
short : -32768 to 32767
int : -2147483648 to 2147483647
long : -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807
```
For most non-scientific applications, you likely only need to work with int.
Most of the time, you won't need more than a positive to negative 2.14 billion
whole numbers.
### Unsigned integral types
An unsigned type uses its bytes to represent only positive numbers. The
remainder of the exercise introduces the unsigned integral types in C#.
#### Use the MinValue and MaxValue properties for each unsigned integral type
Below the previous code passage, add the following code:
```cs
Console.WriteLine("");
Console.WriteLine("Unsigned integral types:");
Console.WriteLine($"byte : {byte.MinValue} to {byte.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"ushort : {ushort.MinValue} to {ushort.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"uint : {uint.MinValue} to {uint.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"ulong : {ulong.MinValue} to {ulong.MaxValue}");
```
Save your code file, and then run your code.
You should see the following output:
```txt
Signed integral types:
sbyte : -128 to 127
short : -32768 to 32767
int : -2147483648 to 2147483647
long : -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807
Unsigned integral types:
byte : 0 to 255
ushort : 0 to 65535
uint : 0 to 4294967295
ulong : 0 to 18446744073709551615
```
While a given data type can be used for many cases, given the fact that the
`byte` data type can represent a value from 0 to 255, it's obvious that this is
intended to hold a value that represents a byte of data. Data stored in files
or data transferred across the internet is often in a binary format. When
working with data from these external sources, you need to receive data as an
array of bytes, then convert them into strings. Many of the methods in the .NET
Class Library that deal with encoding and decoding data requires you handle byte
arrays.
### Recap
- An integral type is a simple value data type that can hold whole numbers.
- There are signed and unsigned numeric data types. Signed integral types use 1
bit to store whether the value is positive or negative.
- You can use the `MaxValue` and `MinValue` properties of numeric data types to
evaluate whether a number can fit in a given data type.
---
## Exercise
### Discover floating-point types
In this exercise, you work with floating-point data types to learn about the
nuanced differences between each data type.
A floating point is a simple value type that represents numbers to the right of
the decimal place. Unlike integral numbers, there are other considerations
beyond the maximum and minimum values you can store in a given floating-point
type.
#### Evaluate floating-point types
First, you must consider the digits of precision each type allows. Precision is
the number of value places stored after the decimal point.
Second, you must consider the manner in which the values are stored and the
impact on the accuracy of the value. For example, `float` and `double` values are
stored internally in a binary (base 2) format, while `decimal` is stored in a
decimal (base 10) format. Why does this matter?
Performing math on binary floating-point values can produce results that may
surprise you if you're used to decimal (base 10) math. Often, binary
floating-point math is an approximation of the real value. Therefore, `float` and
`double` are useful because large numbers can be stored using a small memory
footprint. However, `float` and `double` should only be used when an
approximation is useful. For example, being a few thousandths off when
calculating the splatter of a snowball in a video game is close enough.
When you need more a more precise answer, you should use `decimal`. Each value
of type `decimal` has a relatively large memory footprint, however performing
math operations gives you a more precise result. So, you should use decimal
when working with financial data or any scenario where you need an accurate
result from a calculation.
#### Use the MinValue and MaxValue properties for each signed float type
- Delete or use the line comment operator `//` to comment out all of the code from
the previous exercises.
- To see the value ranges for the various data types, update your code in the
editor as follows:
```cs
Console.WriteLine("");
Console.WriteLine("Floating point types:");
Console.WriteLine($"float : {float.MinValue} to {float.MaxValue} (with ~6-9 digits of precision)");
Console.WriteLine($"double : {double.MinValue} to {double.MaxValue} (with ~15-17 digits of precision)");
Console.WriteLine($"decimal: {decimal.MinValue} to {decimal.MaxValue} (with 28-29 digits of precision)");
```
The Program.cs file must be saved before building or running the code.
At the Terminal command prompt, to run your code, type `dotnet run` and then
press Enter.
You should see the following output:
```txt
Floating point types:
float : -3.402823E+38 to 3.402823E+38 (with ~6-9 digits of precision)
double : -1.79769313486232E+308 to 1.79769313486232E+308 (with ~15-17 digits of precision)
decimal: -79228162514264337593543950335 to 79228162514264337593543950335 (with 28-29 digits of precision)
```
As you can see, `float` and `double` use a different notation than is used by
`decimal` to represent its largest and smallest possible values. But what does
this notation mean?
#### Deciphering large floating-point values
Because floating-point types can hold large numbers with precision, their
values can be represented using "E notation", which is a form of scientific
notation that means "times 10 raised to the power of." So, a value like `5E+2`
would be the value 500 because it's the equivalent of `5 x 10^2`, or `5 x 10²`.
### Recap
- A floating-point type is a simple value data type that can hold fractional
numbers.
- Choosing the right floating-point type for your application requires you to
consider more than just the maximum and minimum values that it can hold. You
must also consider how many values can be preserved after the decimal, how the
numbers are stored, and how their internal storage affects the outcome of math
operations.
- Floating-point values can sometimes be represented using "E notation" when
the numbers grow especially large.
- There's a fundamental difference in how the compiler and runtime handle
decimal as opposed to float or double, especially when determining how much
accuracy is necessary from math operations.
---
## Exercise - Discover reference types
Reference types include arrays, classes, and strings. Reference types are
treated differently from value types regarding the way values are stored when
the application is executing.
In this exercise, you learn how reference types are different from value types,
and how to use the `new` operator to associate a variable with a value in the
computer's memory.
### How reference types are different from value types
A value type variable stores its values directly in an area of storage called
the stack. The stack is memory allocated to the code that is currently running
on the CPU (also known as the stack frame, or activation frame). When the stack
frame has finished executing, the values in the stack are removed.
A reference type variable stores its values in a separate memory region called
the heap. The heap is a memory area that is shared across many applications
running on the operating system at the same time. The .NET Runtime communicates
with the operating system to determine what memory addresses are available, and
requests an address where it can store the value. The .NET Runtime stores the
value, and then returns the memory address to the variable. When your code uses
the variable, the .NET Runtime seamlessly looks up the address stored in the
variable, and retrieves the value that's stored there.
You'll next write some code that illustrates these ideas more clearly.
### Define a reference type variable
Delete or use the line comment operator `//` to comment out all of the code
from the previous exercises.
Update your code in the editor as follows:
```cs
int[] data;
```
The previous code defines a variable that can hold a value of type int array.
At this point, `data` is merely a variable that could hold a reference, or
rather, a memory address of a value in the heap. Because it's not pointing to a
memory address, it's called a null reference.
Create an instance of `int` array using the `new` keyword
Update your code in the editor to create and assign a new instance of `int`
array, using the following code:

```cs
int[] data;
data = new int[3];
```
The `new` keyword informs .NET Runtime to create an instance of `int` array,
and then coordinate with the operating system to store the array sized for
three int values in memory. The .NET Runtime complies, and returns a memory
address of the new `int` array. Finally, the memory address is stored in the
variable data. The `int` array's elements default to the value `0`, because that
is the default value of an `int`.
Modify the code example to perform both operations in a single line of code
The two lines of code in the previous step are typically shortened to a single
line of code to both declare the variable, and create a new instance of the
`int` array. Modify the code from step 3 to the following.
```cs
int[] data = new int[3];
```
While there's no output to observe, hopefully this exercise added clarity to
how the C# syntax relates to the steps of the process for working with
reference types.
#### What's different about the C# string data type?
The `string` data type is also a reference type. You might be wondering why a
`new` operator wasn't used when declaring a string. This is purely a convenience
afforded by the designers of C#. Because the `string` data type is used so
frequently, you can use this format:
```cs
string shortenedString = "Hello World!";
Console.WriteLine(shortenedString);
```
Behind the scenes, however, a new instance of `System.String` is created and
initialized to "Hello World!".
#### Practical concerns using value and reference types
1. **Value Type (int)**: In this example, `val_A` and `val_B` are integer value types.
```cs
int val_A = 2;
int val_B = val_A;
val_B = 5;
Console.WriteLine("--Value Types--");
Console.WriteLine($"val_A: {val_A}");
Console.WriteLine($"val_B: {val_B}");
```
You should see the following output:
```txt
--Value Types--
val_A: 2
val_B: 5
```
When `val_B` = `val_A` is executed, the value of `val_A` is copied and stored in
`val_B`. So, when `val_B` is changed, `val_A` remains unaffected.
2. **Reference Type (array)**: In this example, `ref_A` and `ref_B` are array
reference types.
```cs
int[] ref_A= new int[1];
ref_A[0] = 2;
int[] ref_B = ref_A;
ref_B[0] = 5;
Console.WriteLine("--Reference Types--");
Console.WriteLine($"ref_A[0]: {ref_A[0]}");
Console.WriteLine($"ref_B[0]: {ref_B[0]}");
```
You should see the following output:
```txt
--Reference Types--
ref_A[0]: 5
ref_B[0]: 5
```
When `ref_B` = `ref_A` is executed, `ref_B` points to the same memory
location as `ref_A`. So, when `ref_B[0]` is changed, `ref_A[0]` also changes
because they both point to the same memory location. This is a key difference
between value types and reference types.
### Recap
- Value types can hold smaller values and are stored in the stack. Reference
types can hold large values, and a new instance of a reference type is created
using the `new` operator. Reference type variables hold a reference (the memory
address) to the actual value stored in the heap.
- Reference types include arrays, strings, and classes.
---
## Choose the right data type
You've been introduced to the difference between value types and reference type
s, as well as integral and floating point types.
Suppose your job is to build a new application that retrieves, manipulates, and
stores different types of data. Which data types do you use?
In some cases, it is an easy choice. For example, when you need to work with
text, then you default to using the `string` data type unless you need to
perform a significant amount of concatenation.
But what about working with numeric data? There are 11 different options. How
do you choose the right data type?
### Choose the right data type
With so many data types to choose from, what criteria should you use to choose
the right data type for the particular situation?
When evaluating your options, you must weigh several important considerations.
Often there's no one single correct answer, but some answers are more correct
than others.
#### Choose the data type that meets the boundary value range requirements of your application
Your choice of a data type can help to set the boundaries for the size of the
data you might store in that particular variable. For example, if you know a
particular variable should only store a number between 1 and 10,000 otherwise
it's outside of the boundaries of what would be expected, you would likely
avoid `byte` and `sbyte` since their ranges are too low.
Furthermore, you would likely not need `int`, `long`, `uint`, and `ulong`
because they can store more data than is necessary. Likewise, you would
probably skip `float`, `double`, and `decimal` if you didn't need fractional
values. You might narrow it down to `short` and `ushort`, of which both may be
viable. If you're confident that a negative value would have no meaning in your
application, you might choose `ushort` (positive unsigned integer, 0 to 65,535).
Now, any value assigned to a variable of type `ushort` outside of the boundary
of 0 to 65535 would throw an exception, thereby subtly helping you enforce a
degree of sanity checking in your application.
#### Start with choosing the data type to fit the data (not to optimize performance)
You may be tempted to choose the data type that uses the fewest bits to store
data thinking it improves your application's performance. However, some of the
best advice related to application performance (that is, how fast your
application runs) is to not "prematurely optimize". You should resist the
temptation to guess at the parts of your code, including the selection of data
types that may impact your application's performance.
Many assume that because a given data type stores less information it must use
less of the computer's processor and memory than a data type that stores more
information. Instead, you should choose the right fit for your data, then later
you can empirically measure the performance of your application using special
software that provides factual insights to the parts of your application that
negatively impact performance.
#### Choose data types based on the input and output data types of library functions used
Suppose you want to work with a span of years between two dates. Since the
application is a business application, you might determine that you only need a
range from about 1960 to 2200. You might think to try to work with byte since
it can represent numbers between 0 and 255.
However, when you look at the built-in methods on the `System.TimeSpan` and
`System.DateTime` classes, you realize they mostly accept values of type
`double` and `int`. If you choose `sbyte`, you'll constantly be casting back
and forth between `sbyte` and `double` or `int`. In this case, it might make
more sense to choose `int` if you don't need subsecond precision, and `double`
if you do need subsecond precision.
#### Choose data types based on impact to other systems
Sometimes, you must consider how the information will be consumed by other
applications or other systems like a database. For example, SQL Server's type
system is different from C#'s type system. As a result, some mapping between
the two must happen before you can save data into that database.
If your application's purpose is to interface with a database, then you would
likely need to consider how the data is stored and how much data is stored. The
choice of a larger data type might impact the amount (and cost) of the physical
storage required to store all the data your application will generate.
#### When in doubt, stick with the basics
While you've looked at several considerations, as you're getting started, for
simplicity's sake you should prefer a subset of basic data types, including:
- `int` for most whole numbers
- `decimal` for numbers representing money
- `bool` for true or false values
- `string` for alphanumeric value
#### Choose specialty complex types for special situations
Don't reinvent data types if one or more data type already exists for a given
purpose. The following examples identify where a specific .NET data types can
be useful:
- `byte`: working with encoded data that comes from other computer systems or
using different character sets.
- `double`: working with geometric or scientific purposes. double is used
frequently when building games involving motion.
- `System.DateTime` for a specific date and time value.
- `System.TimeSpan` for a span of years / months / days / hours / minutes /
seconds / milliseconds.
### Recap
There are considerations when choosing data types for your code, and often more
than one option. Think through your choices, and unless you have a good reason,
try to stick with the basic types like `int`, `decimal`, `string`, and `bool`.
## Summary
Choosing the right data type for your application is a vital programming skill.
Your goal was to understand the differences between each data type to make an
informed decision on the data types in your code.
You started building a mental model of how data is stored as your application
executes. You have experience working with new integral and floating point data
types. You have criteria you can use when deciding which data types to employ
in your code. Finally, you understand why you need to use the `new` keyword when
creating instances of reference types.

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Console.WriteLine("-------------------------------------------");
Console.WriteLine("Signed integral types:");
Console.WriteLine($"sbyte : {sbyte.MinValue} to {sbyte.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"short : {short.MinValue} to {short.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"int : {int.MinValue} to {int.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"long : {long.MinValue} to {long.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine("-------------------------------------------");
Console.WriteLine("Unsigned integral types:");
Console.WriteLine($"byte : {byte.MinValue} to {byte.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"ushort : {ushort.MinValue} to {ushort.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"uint : {uint.MinValue} to {uint.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine($"ulong : {ulong.MinValue} to {ulong.MaxValue}");
Console.WriteLine("-------------------------------------------");
Console.WriteLine("Floating point types:");
Console.WriteLine($"float : {float.MinValue} to {float.MaxValue} (with ~6-9 digits of precision)");
Console.WriteLine($"double : {double.MinValue} to {double.MaxValue} (with ~15-17 digits of precision)");
Console.WriteLine($"decimal: {decimal.MinValue} to {decimal.MaxValue} (with 28-29 digits of precision)");
Console.WriteLine("-------------------------------------------");
int val_A = 2;
int val_B = val_A;
val_B = 5;
Console.WriteLine("--Value Types--");
Console.WriteLine($"val_A: {val_A}");
Console.WriteLine($"val_B: {val_B}");
int[] ref_A= new int[1];
ref_A[0] = 2;
int[] ref_B = ref_A;
ref_B[0] = 5;
Console.WriteLine("--Reference Types--");
Console.WriteLine($"ref_A[0]: {ref_A[0]}");
Console.WriteLine($"ref_B[0]: {ref_B[0]}");
Console.WriteLine("-------------------------------------------");

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020_data_types/test_app/test_app.csproj Normal file
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@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
<Project Sdk="Microsoft.NET.Sdk">
<PropertyGroup>
<OutputType>Exe</OutputType>
<TargetFramework>net8.0</TargetFramework>
<ImplicitUsings>enable</ImplicitUsings>
<Nullable>enable</Nullable>
</PropertyGroup>
</Project>

1
README.md
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@ -24,3 +24,4 @@ Following
- [Looping logic using the do-while and while](./017_Looping_logic_using_do-while_and_while/017_csharp.md) - [Looping logic using the do-while and while](./017_Looping_logic_using_do-while_and_while/017_csharp.md)
- [Conditional branching and looping](./018_Conditional_branching_and_looping/018_csharp.md) - [Conditional branching and looping](./018_Conditional_branching_and_looping/018_csharp.md)
- [Branching and looping structures](./019_branching_and_looping_structures/019_csharp.md) - [Branching and looping structures](./019_branching_and_looping_structures/019_csharp.md)
- [Choose the correct data type](/020_data_types/020_csharp.md)